The Tiltle of the Assignment:
Is Bian Way`s Theory of the Exercises Educational ?
Introduction:
My aim behind describing the content of Brian Way`s theory of the exercises is to show whether it is educational. Does it reinforce areas in the curriculum? Does it contribute to the improvement of any social or linguistic skill? Does it help pupils to confront challenging situations and to solve problems? Or else, what implications does it have in the context of Drama and theatre? Does it strengthen or does it weaken the link between them. In other words, what part could the audience play in elevating the standards of pupils if the theory of the exercises were effectively educational? What is the scope of the participation of the audience? Does it take notes as it is the case in forum theatre? Is it passive? Does it exist? In the attempt to provide answers to these questions, the following themes will constitute the pillars that sustain the discussion. Part one will deal with the description of the content of the theory of the exercises. Meanwhile, the nature of the theory with regard to its educational aspect will be disclosed. The focus in the second part of my paper will shed light upon challenges encountered in dealing with Brian Way`s theory of the exercises, especially when it is associated with educational Drama. The third part will be reserved for disclosing another dimension of the theory, as it will be put into practice in Drama by Brian Way.
Part One: Brian Way`s Theory of the Exercises and Educational Drama
From the onset, the exercises do not seem to be educational at all because their content is not directed at learning. Brian Way described hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and tasting as inner mechanisms existing within each human being (Brian, 1980, 15). They are facets of the personality needing to be developed through Drama on the basis of emotional and intuitive training exercises (Brian Way, 1980, 10)
For the first time in the history of drama teaching, the exercises are included in a drama-teacher repertoire and they even became pre-dominant in Drama-lessons, especially as warm up exercises (David Hornbrook,1989, 151).
-a-Drama and the Development of the Inner Resources
One would expect the different steps governing the exercises to foster learning. Instead, they are established for the development of psychological personality traits, relevant to the imagination and to intuition. According to Brian Way Drama exercises are media for restoring and developing inner natural processes that are suppressed after early childhood (David Hornbrook, 1998, 11). Such development is natural and it occurs independently from teacher-intrusion (Brian Way, 1980, 12).The inner resources might be developed individually, through pair-work-exercises, followed by smaller and larger class groups (David Hornbrook, 1989, 152). A series of exercises based on listening, looking and touching (hearing, seeing, , smelling and tasting) would help pupils develop independently from teacher intrusion.
Everything in the theory of the exercises seems to evolve round the development of imagination and intuition (Brian Way, 1980, 12). The process of development is noted to be genuine because it naturally enhances the inner facets of human beings, that is, the inner resources of hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and tasting which exist from birth in all human beings independently from teacher intrusion (Brian Way, 1980, 12)
As it will be described below, a difference in terms of details relevant to each individual on the circle must be identified. This is so because each individual is unique, hence, each individual must be thought of as having a unique personality (Brian Way, 1980, 10).
-b-The Discussion of the Points on the Circle Seem to be far Removed from the Context of Drama
Although Brian Way maintains that Drama helps each person of us to discover and to develop the inner resources (Brian Way, 1980, 10), his description of the process of such evolution is far removed from the dramatic context. He noted that “the inner resources are located in the inner rather than on the outward shape of the circle” (Brian Way, 1980, 12), and that it is up to the individual to discover and to explore them, regardless of any external assistance” (Brian Way, 1980, 12). “The inner resources exist on the deepest outward shaped circle in each person and they need to develop” (Brian Way, 1980, 12).
At a later stage, the exercises would help the individual to explore the environment which is located on the next circle outwards (Brian Way, 1980, 12). Here the enrichment of the resources involve the environment that is located outside the self (Brian Way, 1980, 12). Therefore, not only are the inner resources removed from the context of drama in education, but also, the part that an external force can play in the process, notably the role of the teacher is marginalised. Therefore, Brian Way`s theory of the exercises is not educational.
-c-The Impact of the Era on the Theory of the Exercises
Brian Way was indeed the product of the historical era where he appeared, emerging after the Second World War (David Hornbrook, 1989, 29). Instead of focus on skills in Drama, there rose at that time the need for education to help pupils discover their inner resources leading them to cope up and to live at ease in a changing world (David Hornbrook, 1989, 29). Brian Way found the solace in Drama (David Hornbrook, 1991, 18) which, might, according to him, enhance spontaneity. Spontaneity was valued as a counterpart to mechanical Knowledge (Michael Fleming, 2001, 49), recurring as a major theme in publications subsequent to the success of child Drama (David Hornbrook, 1989, 11).
Brian Way deepened the gap initiated by Peter Slade between Drama and theatre in favour of personal development finding expression through the theory of the exercises (David Hornbrook, 989, 11)
-d-Concentration Exercises
A careful examination of the concentration-exercises leads to the conclusion that they are not necessarily associated to Drama (Brian, 1980, 16). Rather than laying focus upon Drama skills, concentration- exercises lay it upon the development of the inner resources of hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and upon the growing ability of the individual to concentrate (Brian Way, 1980, 14). A concentration session is limited to 40 minutes (Phil Jones, 1996, 7) and it requires being regularly practiced (Brian, 1980, 15). First, the whole class is supposed to get involved into the exercises (Brian, 1980, 16). Second, the teacher is not expected to intrude into the process of showing pupils how to concentrate because this is a genuine process (Brian, 1980, 16). Third, as an exercise, concentration must be conducted in a calm and uncritical atmosphere (Brian, 1980, 16). Fourth, the exercise is meant to last for life (Brian, 1980, 16). Fifth, a series of factors, like the audience, must be avoided as long as it may stand in the way of the potential to achieve enrichment through concentration (Brian Way, 1980, 14). All age-groups at school need to be protected from the audience till they achieve emotional maturity (Brian Way, 1980, 14).
According to Brian Way, the elimination of the audience from the process of concentration forges an interval between theatre and Drama (Brian Way, 1980, 14). Theatre requires the study of scripts for individual development and Drama does not (Brian Way, 1980, 10). “Development through theatre is valid for English teaching but leaves out other trainings which do not come under the aegis of the English Department” (Brian Way, 1980, 10). If Drama exercises are committed to such development, this contribution is perceived in the context of personal growth (Michael Fleming, 2001, 49) where emphasis is placed upon the development of personal qualities (Michael Fleming, 2001, 49)
Brian Way`s marginalisation of teachers in the theory of the exercises reinforces the fact that his theory is not educational at all. The teacher cannot start the ability of the pupils to concentrate (Brian, 1980, 15). His/her role is limited to feeding that which already exists within each pre-school child. If some conditions at home destroy the capacity to concentrate, the teacher`s scope is limited to rebuilding what already exists within the child (Brian, 1980, 15).The rebuilding of concentration becomes a necessity mainly in secondary schools where self-consciousness may negatively affect young people (Brian, 1980, 15). Therefore, the function of the exercises consist in developing concentration as being one of the points on the circle (Brian, 1980, 15) and the scope of the intrusion of the teacher in the process is minimal. It is, therefore, non educational.
-e-Trying out the Exercises
The following section will be devoted to the description of three types of exercises, relating to listening, looking and touching. The objective is to determine whether they are educational.
-f-Listening-Exercise Number One (Brian, 1980, 17).
The listening session, according to Brian Way, is not supposed to last for more than fifteen and thirty seconds (Brian, 1980, 17). One of its consequences is that it leads to the development of imagination (Brian, 1980, 19).
Here, Pupils are asked to listen to sounds prevailing inside the building, in adjacent places, or listening to their own breathing (Brian, 1980, 17). They are also asked to listen again to the same sounds (Brian, 1980, 18), imagining a person or persons in connection to the sound, like passengers on a bus (Brian, 1980, 18). After a series of exercises, they will discuss all the so far heard sounds among each other (Brian, 1980, 18). Then, each person in class will have to privately discuss the sounds so far heard with a neighbouring classmate (Brian, 1980, 18).The teacher will, then, make different sounds, example, opening or closing cupboards, opening or closing doors (Brian, 1980, 19), and the class will be asked to speak when the sound is identified and to remember each sound and to identify it during pair or class discussions (Brian, 1980, 19). The class will also have to remember the number of footsteps made by the teacher between each sound (Brian, 1980, 19). Is the exercise Dramatic? Can it enhance learning? The nature of Its content will be further be stressed in the listening exercise number two finding form below.
-g-Listening-Exercise Number Two (Brian, 1980, 19).
Children aged nine and above it start to develop a strong sense of concentration (Brian, 1980, 19)
The following exercise provides an illustration of how the process of listening is carried out with a class aged nine (Brian, 1980, 19). It also shows that the process is not educational. First, the class is divided into pairs and while each one of the pair will be making a series of sounds, the other member will be listening to it with eyes closed (Brian, 1980, 19). Then, the two halves in the pair exchange roles for those who were listeners will repeat exactly the same sounds they have heard before while those who made the sound will become listeners (Brian, 1980, 19). Then, the class will be divided into two: One of the pair will be quietly absorbed in their reading of a book and hence will be ignoring the other members talking to them (Brian, 1980, 19). Then, the readers of the book will share the contents of their reading with the members who were trying to distract them (Brian, 1980, 19). Then, the pairs will exchange the roles they have so far clicked into (Brian, 1980, 19). In the meantime, no shouts and no touching are allowed (Brian, 1980, 20)
The groups will be gradually increasing in number as they will be put in three, four, five, six and seven (Brian, 1980, 20). They will have to repeat similar exercises (Brian, 1980, 20). Thus, listening exercise number two stresses the fact that listening exercises forwarded by Brian Way are not educational. Their concerns is limited to the development of perception and imagination and not the enhancement of Skills.
-h- Looking-Exercise Number One (Brian, 1980, 20):
Whatever applies to listening-exercises in terms of educational Drama applies to looking. When the looking –exercise is regular, it cultivates a sense of observation, but it is not associated to a dramatic context. The examination of the following looking-exercise would confirm this observation. First, pupils are asked to look around the room, to identify the number of colours in it. For reasons related to self-consciousness in the process of looking at people, the latter must be avoided during the game because Brian Way believes that they spoil the ability of the pupils to look carefully at items in their surrounding area. (Brian, 1980, 20)
Second, besides looking at colours in the room and describing them, the pupils are asked to look at the closest surface surrounding them like the floor or the back of a chair and to identify lines or marks on the surface (Brian, 1980, 20). Third, they are asked to look at the lines on their palm-hands (Brian, 1980, 20), to repeat the exercises and to discuss them in pairs or with class. Meanwhile, no competition among the pupils is expected to take place during the discussion (Brian, 1980, 20). It is to be of note that the number of objects or surfaces chosen by the teacher are limitless in number and that they involve three levels of attention: intimate and personal, close to the pupils`own environment and far in the outer environment (Brian, 1980, 20). Is the looking exercise educational?
-i- Looking –Exercise Number Two: (Brian, 1980, 21)
The study of the following looking-exercise leads to the same conclusion about Brian Way`s theory of the exercises. It confirms the belief that it is not educational. Pupils are asked to look at the full architecture of the hall as if they intend to draw a plan through scanning it (Brian, 1980, 21). In pairs, they will have to discuss each feature they have observed (Brian, 1980, 21). The same process of scanning will be applied with refrence to a chair, a window or a radiator and then pair discussion will follow ((Brian, 1980, 21).
-j- Looking –Exercise Number Three (Brian, 1980, 22)
Pupils are given an advertisement and they are allotted thirty seconds to examine it (Brian, 1980, 22). In pairs or in small or larger group, the pupils discuss its details (Brian, 1980, 22). Pupils are also asked to make a link between this advertisement and proceedings witnessed at court or at the police headquarters (Brian, 1980, 22)
The exercises have different functions. First, they aid the individual to be permanently aware of the ever changing environment (Brian, 1980, 21). Second, with full practice, the individual will be leading a full sensitive and rich life since the concern will involve consideration for things and people (Brian, 1980, 21). Therefore, as it is the case for listening exercises, the objective is far from stressing the importance of learning drama skills.
-k-Touching-Exercise Number One (Brian, 1980, 21)
Touching exercises are not educational either, though the same principle of self-development is embedded in them. Since the intensity of the sensitivity of perception increases when the eyes are closed, many exercises relating to touching are carried out with closed eyes (Brian, 1980, 23). Thus, first, pupils are asked to get their fingers rest upon something and then to describe the feeling the thing evokes, which could either be cold, warmth, smoothness, roughness. It all depends on the feel of the object evokes (Brian, 1980, 23). Second, the pupils will identify one or more surfaces that feel differently from the first or from each other and in pairs, they will discuss the different textures and how they feel so different from each other (Brian, 1980, 23)
-l-Touching-Exercise Number Two (Brian, 1980, 23)
One of a pair will be guiding his companion with closed eyes. While he is staring at something in the surrounding space, the other member will have to guess what it is. (Brian, 1980, 23). Then, roles are exchanged (Brian, 1980, 23).
The conclusion is that Brian Way has stressed the importance of self development through concentration, listening, looking and touching exercises. This was a trait so common in his writings as Cecily O`Neil noted (2006, 28), stating that it was clear that the 1960s and the 1970s promoted an emphasis on pedagogy whose characteristics were illustrated in Verrier`s works and in Drama as a learning medium being represented by Dorothy Heathcoat and in personal development being represented by Brian Way. However, it has been demonstrated that Brian Way`s theory of the exercises is far from being educational.
-m-Ball Exercises
The following exercises were part of Brian Way`s theory of Drama too. As it will be revealed, this theory is not educational either. The teacher is part of the game (Brian Way, 1980, 43). He will divide space using barriers of chairs (Brian Way, 1980, 43). The whole class will be working at once, giving a chance to individual work to occur. In this, each individual will be working on his own (Brian Way, 1980, 43). Individual work is used as a starting point, followed by pair work, then group work of three, four or five per group (Brian Way, 1980, 43). Thus, each pupil is given an imaginary tennis ball (Brian Way, 1980, 43). First, he will bounce it fast, then slow, will throw it up to different heights, catches it, throws it again at different walls, spins it with the fingers, with feet, kicks it into different directions (Brian Way, 1980, 43). The pupil will repeat the exercise using a large, light ball, before he uses a heavier tennis one (Brian Way, 1980, 43). He will repeat all the above exercises using constant changes of speed from very fast to very slow (Brian Way, 1980, 43). The exercise is individually-oriented (Brian Way, 1980, 43). In pairs, the pupils will repeat some of these exercises using slow and fast movements and then exchanging roles with other partners (Brian Way, 1980, 43). Are the ball exercises educational? They are obviously not.
Part II: Criticism
-A- Egocentrism
When Brian Way`s theory became known, it was common for one to hear the following words “find a space on your own!” (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). There were three kinds of such exercises: direct, non dramatic exercises were concerned with listening to the sounds outside the room (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). Indirect, non dramatic exercises invited children to listen to sounds prevailing in the neighbourhood as if you are going to leave the neighbourhood and store the memories (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). What implications could be drawn from all this? It was the first time in the history of drama teaching that the notion of exercises was introduced into classroom drama (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150), and where intuition was considered to be more important than make-believe (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). Brian Way`s emphasis on Drama being based on a series of exercises did not lend itself to development into the kind of shared moments of theatrical significance sought by Slade, though the choice of vocabulary still tended to be deeply rooted in the theatrical tradition (Gavin Bolton, 1998,148). Brian Way`s objective was the achievement of “growth” (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 42) taking place within an egocentrism context expressed during individual exercises (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). The theory is, consequently, ego-centric and is therefore non educational. The reason is that Drama has never been the concern of an individual but the product of society (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). Drama has never been a solitary experience but a social event (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). Drama has not been about self-expression but about the expression of the group (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). With Brian Way`s theory in mind, one might believe that generations had been trained to believe it was the expression of each child`s ego (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). Teachers might have consequently felt confused because they would have since then had to have under their responsibility at least thirty unique individuals, each having distinct attributes needing improvement instead of a group being a whole sum of pupils (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 4). Brian Way seemed to assert the foolish rhetoric so commonly used by Peter Slade recommending that while the “whole class was working on one side, each individual should be working entirely on his/her own” (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 149. The continuation of Peter Slade`s physical education style of teaching incited people to assume that Brian Way was not innovative and that his theory was but a reiteration of the foolish contents so commonly advocated by Peter Slade (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 149)
-B-The Foolish Aspect of the Theory of the Exercises
The local authorities appointed Peter Slade and Brian Way as teacher-advisers in schools and colleges (J Allen, 1979, 13). The objective was to get them “ to help the sequential importance of the subject over the whole of the curriculum” (J Allen, 1979, 13). However, despite the fact that the two training teachers were remarkable professionals who devoted their professional lives to education in Drama and to the establishment of an atmosphere where teachers felt free to trust the natural dramatic expression of each child (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 2) (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 147), criticism will be directed at the method they applied with children in the field of Drama. A quick reading of Brian Way`s theory would lead one to conclude that it is not educational. Gavin Bolton (1984, 81) for instance, denounced the theory describing it to be foolish and out of the context of Drama: “foolish in my view is the insistence by Brian Way that children should be given practice in concentration” (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 81). Brian Way provided children with two kinds of exercises that suggest such a foolishness: direct, non dramatic exercises relevant to listening to the sounds occurring outside the room (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150) and indirect, non dramatic exercises relating to sounds prevailing in the neighbourhood. The response to sound effects, far from being educative, leads one to make the following conclusion: one responds to sounds in such a way that he gives the impression he would store them as memories before he/she leaves the neighbourhood (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150).
-C-Brian Way`s Theory of the Exercises and His Indifference to the Curriculum
What would pupils learn when they are introduced to exercises set at the margins of the curriculum?
The discussion of the approach introduced by Hurriett Finlay Johnson would reinforce the nature of the irrelevant theory forwarded by Brian Way, irrelevant in the sense that the exercises are not tied up to curriculum areas. Perhaps, a brief description of the method used by Hurriett Finlay Johnson would help the reader share the opinion that Brian Way`s theory of the exercises was not educational. While Brian Way`s theory of the exercises was mostly associated with psycho-Drama and Drama-therapy, hurriett Finlay Johnson (1871-1956) was tightly linked to the curriculum. Hurriet Finlay Johnson regretted the fact that Drama had to play such a limited part in modern times (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 5). Hurriet Finlay Johnson (1871-1956) placed Drama under the art of language because it is linked to speech (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 8). In terms of acting, Hurriet Finlay Johnson placed Drama under “the arts of natural representation” (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 7). The priority given to some subjects over others across the curriculum marked the beginning of disputes (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 7). Hurriett Finlay Johnson put a wide variety of subjects under the Drama umbrella to teach history, geography, literature, Shakespeare, grammar, spelling, arithmetic and nature study (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 10). Hurriet Finlay Johnson was the best pioneer in her field, laying a claim for dramatisation in the classroom (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 5): “she was the first to record classroom Drama” (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 7). She was the first to refer to Drama as a classroom activity (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 7). She also published works referring to classroom dramatic activities in the kindergarten (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 5), despite the fact that there was a sort of resistance to the idea that pupils “would emerge conversant through a corpus of knowledge finding form in Drama” (David Hornbrook, 1998, 12)
By the 1990, there were concerns that drama might not be appropriately serving students (David Hornbrook, 1998, 12). That Drama should be put within curriculum-knowledge conspicuously accentuated the defective aspect of the approach introduced by Brian Way, deviating from this trend. Consequently, pioneers supported the theory initiated by Hurriett Finlay Johnson. Thus, like Hurriett Finlay Johnson (1871-1956), Dorothy Heathcoate (1994) used Drama across the curriculum. The important aspect of the Drama being responsive to the requirements of the curriculum was stressed by Dorothy Heathcote, forging a deeper abyss between her approach and the theory of the exercises. With Dorothy Heathcote, five or six sessions had to cover many selected topics of the curriculum like science, math, language and art skills (Gavin Bolton and Dorothy Heathcote, 1994, 16). Any subject she had to teach had to be meshed within a broad curriculum knowledge and skills (Gavin Bolton and Dorothy Heathcote, 1994, 16). If bullying had to be discussed, it had to emerge at the appropriate time, that is, when the skills and knowledge needed to tackle bullying have already been carried out through earlier tasks (Gavin Bolton and Dorothy Heathcote ,1994, 16). All the aspects of the curriculum had to be accessible (Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton, 1994, 17), involving calculation, estimation, talk systems, writing of all kinds and reading (Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton, 1994, 17). There could be a historical, scientific, geographical or archaeological bias depending on what the curriculum demanded (Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton, 1994, 17). Every subject had to emerge from curricular tasks (Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton, 1994, 17)
-D-Brian Way under the Influence of Psychodrama and Drama-therapy
Meanwhile, there was a flare of psychology and Drama-therapy about Brian Way`s theory of the exercises being the genral trend in the Western culture of the 1950s and the 1960s (Eva Leveton, 1991, ix). This accounts for the fact that the theory of the exercises was psychology rather than education-oriented. At that time, psychodrama was in full application in hospitals, in companies, in stress management seminars, conveyed through TV shows and computer-games (Eva Leveton, 1991, ix). Cognitive behavioural techniques, so commonly used in psychodrama (Eva Leveton, 1991, ix), are reflected in Brian Way`s theory of the exercises. Like all theatre directors in psychodrama, being in charge of a group of actors, teaching them how to become spontaneous (Eva Leveton, 1991, ix), Bryan Way was in charge of pupils for the same objective.
As far as the impact of psychodrama on Bryan Way`s theory of the exercises is concerned, it is important to decipher the nature of activities undertaken in psychodrama and to compare them to Brian Way`s exercises. This will give us an insight into how far can Brian Way`s theory be removed from education in Drama. Reliance on mime, the excessive use of the body for emotional expression (Eva Leveton, 1991, 6), the sensual pleasure in awakening in the forest where the exercise demanded silence (Eva Leveton, 1991, 116), the dancer Bari Rolf“s use of the mask to gain insight into how the body moved to experiment with fantasy (Eva Leveton, 1991, 114) as well as his warm up trainings during psychodrama sessions (Eva Leveton, 1991, 3) are reminiscent of Brian Way`s use of the body, notably, the eyes, the ears and the hands as major tools for achieving goals. The same recourse to the body is put in full application in Drama-therapy too. Like Drama-therapy sessions, warm ups were common in psychodrama (Phil Jones, 1996,7) and are used by many teachers deriving inspiration from Brian Way`s theory of the exercises. Like Psychodrama and Drama-therapy sessions, Brian Way`s exercises lasted 40 minutes (Phil Jones, 1996, 7)
In addition to this, the detail of the three levels of attention which are listening, looking and touching are closely related to the Drama-therapist Stanilavski`s circles of concentration which stemmed from the personal self to involve the surrounding environment and a larger environment that included the audience (Brian Way, 1980, 26). For Brian Way was indeed influenced by Stanilavski (1937) , especially by her conception about theatre (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47). Brian Way developed similar trainings for pupils in schools to help them develop sensitivity, concentration and intuition (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47).
He believed that training in minor exercises would through time help pupils to develop these personality traits which were so often ignored by the traditional curriculum (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47). Many of Brian Way`s exercises were non-dramatic and they appealed to the adherents of the Gestalt theory and to group therapists, upholding his concept of the uniqueness of the individual (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 151). The endeavour was limited to structuring Drama without virtually necessarily getting involved into it as it was the case with the Leban movement (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 151). The influence of the Leban movement was perceived in “effort-exercises” (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 151), proving that Bryan Way`s theory was not educational at all.
-E-The Thory of the Exercises and the Challenge of Teaching Skills
The major question is the following: has Brian Way given teachers a base upon which to axe class work? (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47). Holmes noted that Harriett Finlay Johnson improved many skills through Drama: to act in the dramatic sense of the word, to draw and to paint, to sing and to dance, to talk and to listen, to construct things and to acquire experience (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 12). According to Gavin Bolton (1984, 43), Brian Way`s exercises did not improve skills because they were non dramatic. Pedagogical versions of classroom Drama perceived the importance of the art form in the way it could service a variety of social and moral issues (Hornbrook, 1991, 11). In this light, Brian Way was not interested in Drama as an important product in itself but “was trying to ignore it” (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 50). Brian Way introduced a mode of Dramatic exercises that went beyond speech training and acting exercises (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 161) too. He but occasioned classroom experimentation in Drama (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 161), pursuant to the introduction of exercises. “Brian Way sought material giving pupils practice in concentration, sensitivity and imagination and material that tended to avoid the complexity of the dramatic event” (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 166). Now the effect of Brian Way`s material on teachers and curriculum planners has been extraordinary, for in some parts of the world whole curricular have been drawn up on the principle of avoiding dramatic contexts (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 166). Furthermore, Brian Way`s influence on Drama through the Dramatic exercise lasted for the whole century (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 161). For “ the influence of Brian Way and Peter Slade as Drama educators was exerted during the 1950 and the 1960s. That of Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton leading to the same aberrance was exerted in the 1970s” ( see Tony Jackson, 1993, 152). Not only has the emphasis placed by him on the individuality of the individual been misleading but it has most importantly led some teachers to distort the medium of Drama itself (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 58). The reason behind the aberrance was that it was understood that after the Second World War Drama teachers were not concerned with the practices of theatre skills but rather with ways of achieving personal and social development (David Hornbrook, 1998, 52).
-F-Teachers nowadays
Brian Way`s Development through Drama was published in 1967 (David Hornbrook, 1989, 11), offering teachers the opportunity to use a series of exercises for creative Drama (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47).They found the exercises delightful, enjoyable and relaxing, but ineffectual within the Drama context (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47).Brian Wood has given teachers practical tools for use during drama lessons but the tools are far removed from educational Drama (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47).
Should his theory be understood and grasped by his Time, it will rather be hard today for young teachers to do so, on the grounds that nowadays, teachers need to explore and to experiment with roles and to decipher meaning underlying drama texts, to meet challenges and to solve problems contained in fiction. Teachers need to “ help pupils enter the world of the story to respond imaginatively and dramatically to the original text” (Cecily O`Neil, 2006, 38”. Drama in education today is acknowledged as an effective method for learning about specific contexts (Cecily O`Neil, 2006, 35). Some of its functions reside in the reinforcement of areas in the curriculum, to understand an event in history, to interprete or to elaborate on a character or a situation in literature, to develop or to practice some linguistic or social skill (Cecily O`Neil, 2006, 35). An experienced teacher would use Drama in education for learning and discovery (Cecily O`Neil, 2006, 35). As a matter of fact, Brian Way cannot provide teachers with such practical tools. Today, his voice is judged to be lone (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 2). This leads Gavin Bolton ( 1984, 47) to wonder if Brian Way` exercises would lead teachers anywhere, in the end. Gavin Bolton ( 1984, 47) marvels at the idea that teachers should be striving telling stories while pupils are carefully listening and trying to practice, mimicking the sounds! (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47).Concentration and absorption are expected to develop within time! (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47). Therefore, it may well be reasonable to readdress a comment to the officials in charge of the system for the confidence they had placed upon Brian Way and Peter Slade to be teacher-trainers in schools and in colleges (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 147). “Due to the adventurous spirit of educational institutions at that time, officials readily invited Peter Slade and Brian Way into schools and into teacher training institutions (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 147) where they became unofficial advisers on classroom practice” (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 147).
-G- Assessment
“After the Second World War, Drama made its entrance into British classrooms as part of the revolution in educational thinking but found itself on the Curriculum less like a subject than a way of promoting social and mental health” ( David Hornbrook, 1998, 10). That was due to the fact that Brian Way did not impose any restrictions on pupils during the exercises. In his opinion, there should be no competition (Brian Way, 1980, 38). “Fear and failure undermined less gifted pupils and instilled arrogance in the more gifted ones” (Brian Way, 1980, 39). Rather, interest had to be given to work for its own sake and no concern should be shown for the laurels it would win pupils (Brian Way, 1980, 39). Brian Way did not form artists (Brian Way, 1980, 39). Brian Way`s theory was based on freedom and spontaneity. It was not oriented towards building and assessing skills. It was, in short, reminiscent of Peter Slade`s approach. Contrary to usage in educational drama, neither Brian Way, nor Peter Slade made assessment a requirement at school. Peter Slade noted: “to examine or to assess Drama would imply the imposition of a structure which is not necessarily obvious or desirable. An examination syllabus works towards an end product whereas Drama is not concerned with such a result. Drama does not have an accepted, or an easily identifiable body of Knowledge” (David Hornbrook, 1998, 53). The absence of a coherent system of assessment and the nature of the dramatic work introduced by Brian Way sustaining the role of children`s theatre by the 1950s (J. Alen, 1979, 13) caused problems. Ultimately, David Hornbrook (1998, 53) wondered if Drama could lead teachers to set assessment criteria for Drama . Consequently, teachers were faced with the challenge to assess pupils on Drama skills because the pioneers notably Peter Slade and Brian Way came with theories that imposed unmeasured learning (David Hornbrook 1998, 53). In the 1960s, the Certificate of Secondary Education was introduced in England and Wales, resulting into the exertion of pressure for determining what pupils were exactly supposed to learn in Drama for which they might be an assessed (David Hornbrook , 1998, 53). There seemed to be no systematic learning through the theories for which there should be any assessment at all (Philip Taylor, 2006, 51). When Hornbrook (1998, 12) visited schools in the 1990s, he realised that pupils could neither write plays nor perform them because the pioneers did not prepare them for the tasks.
The problems and the difficulties facing teachers and examination boards led to the introduction of a series of reports which were put in the 1974 Schools Council Report on examinations in drama (David Hornbrook, 1998, 53). In 1995, her majesty`s inspectorate (HMI), for instance, reported that Drama designed for pupils aged between five and eleven years old was weak, superficial and that it had little purpose (David Hornbrook, 1998, 12). The report was reminiscent of the 1919 Report, recommending the development of the teaching of Drama in schools (J. Hodgson and M.Banham, 1972, 17). It was also reminiscent of the 1930 Report laying a claim for the development of confidence and freedom in Self-expression (J. Hodgson and M.Banham, 1972, 21).
Therefore, if recommendations had previously been made for promoting English Language as a foundation subject in schools (J. Hodgson and M.Banham, 1972, 17), arguments have recently evolved around the need to improve Drama-teaching (J. Hodgson and M.Banham, 1972, 17). This implies that “the idea that the teacher should get involved into the creative work of his pupils is a fairly recent one (Philip Taylor, 2006, 51). A series of recommendations have thus been made, situating teachers at the heart of the process of raising the status of Drama. Teachers have been expected to put themselves inside the creative process (Philip Taylor, 2006, 52), to provide guidance to pupils and to exert control (Philip Taylor, 2006, 53).
The National Association of Drama Advisers laid the focus upon the development of teaching methods (J. Alen, 1979,13). However, one of its shortcomings was that it tried to overcome serious challenge facing the teaching profession, seeking success through the establishment of B.ed degree. Would Bed degree produce a qualified teacher-profession? (J. Alen, 1979,13).
Part III: Brian Way`s Theory Put into Practice in Drama
The following chapter will examine the statement made by Brian Way (1980, 10) noting that “the idea that there is no correlation between I.Q and Drama is misunderstood”. Therefore, the theory will be conducted through a Drama lesson for the purpose of challenging the assumption that it cannot altogether be educational.
-A-The Production Phase:
-a- A Lesson in Drama and the Use of the Theory of the Exercises: The Production of a Story
Brian Way (1980, 29 ) noted that Stories read from a book could not so easily be used for adaptation to needs, nor could they help the pupils to achieve absorption through them (Brian Way, 1980, 29). However, whether the stories are produced or read out for the boys, sounds inhibiting them like sounds in a desert island, sounds of the sea, of the surf, of birds, of small animals, of the wind, of palm-trees (Brian, 1980, 35) must be enacted to enliven the process of absorption and they are necessary for building up a story (Brian, 1980, 35).
A story will hereafter be read out for the boys. The objective is to bestow recognition upon the theory of the exercises, revealing its educational aspect. It will be conducted within a specified time-limit. All is based on imagination (Brian Way, 1980, 29). The teacher will be reading it aloud, while the boys are carefully listening to him ( Brian Way, 1980, 44). To establish a bond of control during the story-telling (Brian Way, 1980, 44), an arrow in the shape of a clock will be used by the teacher to control all the sounds to which there will be a reference in the story, adapting them to special variations. The arrow will be placed in his hands, using it as his medium of control (Brian Way, 1980, 35). It will be used as the volume control on a radio or television set (Brian Way, 1980, 28). Thus, the intensity of the sounds will depend on whether the arrow points up or whether it points down (Brian Way, 1980, 28). It can be full volume if it points very high (Brian Way, 1980, 28) and it gradually gets reduced as it gradually points down (Brian Way, 1980, 29). The story will illustrate this background picture. By rule, it will not last for more than a few minutes (Brian Way, 1980, 29).
It will also be important to establish some other simple arrangements with the class (Brian Way, 1980, 44). The latter will be divided into sections (Brian Way, 1980, 35). Each section will take charge of a particular sound (Brian Way, 1980, 35). Besides, for the class group to take charge of its own learning, it will be divided into groups of five members each (Brian Way, 1980, 39). A bond of cooperation is expected to be established between the teacher and the pupils, enabling them to produce ideas (Brian Way, 1980, 39). The pupils have to come with very simple ideas like a stick or a phone to build up the story (Brian Way, 1980, 39) and to make the necessary sounds (Brian Way, 1980, 39). Meanwhile, to give a chance to the pupils to refer to sight, hearing and touching, the teacher will be asking them questions like: “and what do you think the characters in the story saw? What do you think they heard? What do you think the man did?” (Brian Way, 1980, 39). When ideas are produced, and the confidence of the pupils is gradually built, the teacher will ultimately hand complete responsibility over to the pupils (Brian Way, 1980, 39). Convinced that building and recording background sounds can be exciting and are important ways for starting stories with children (Brian Way, 1980, 35), Brian Way will, hereafter, build a whole sound picture of a desert island (Brian Way, 1980, 35). The use of the tape-recorder can be used for the final recording too (Brian Way, 1980, 35)
Two friends hired a boat and went to the sea-side (Brian Way, 1980, 29). They reached the sea-side and stopped the engine, and listened carefully to the water lapping at its sides (Brian Way, 1980, 29). They listened very hard and identified the sounds of traffic in town (Brian Way, 1980, 29). They heard other sounds, like the sound of the breeze getting up, getting stronger till it turned into a strong wind (Brian Way, 1980, 29)
The arrow dropped to end the sound because it was very high and the story stopped for a halt (Brian Way, 1980, 29). Then it was resumed: The gale lashed the sea into big waves (Brian Way, 1980, 29). A big wave got into the boat (Brian Way, 1980, 29). A great roar of thunder roared (Brian Way, 1980, 29). The friends listened very hard, far in the distance. They heard people in the market place, calling out the things they had to sell (Brian Way, 1980, 29). They got nearer to the market and the arrow was turned down quickly to cut sound alto (Brian Way, 1980, 29). The reason was that with maximum sound, it would be hard for them to listen (Brian Way, 1980, 29)
-b-Is Brian Way`s Story Be Educational?
I personally believe that through maximum concentration, the children could focus on the semantic component of the story. This would lead them to learn vocabulary and symbolical meaning inhibited in it. Consequently, the pupils would get a deeper insight and would gain a deeper understanding of the story. Concentration on meaning would further enhance their imaginative faculties. Concentration on the sounds in the story would also reinforce their ability to concentrate on the syntactic component in the story, that is, on the grammatical Structure of the story as well as on grammar in general. Concentration on dialogues would also lead them to master communication skills as they would learn how to communicate effectively through them. A well selected story could also arouse awareness about socio-economic and political concerns. Brian Way`s theory of the exercises could therefore be educational.
One of Brian Way`s well selected stories serving socio-economic purposes made use of the theory of the exercises. It was taught to pupils through stages. Stages 1, 2, 3, 4 evolved around factory workers absorbed in discussions about their lived conditions at work, leading them to take the decision to go and besiege the manager at home (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 156). Brian Way used the crowd scene for the improvement of communication skills following speech exercises (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 156). Also, many personal factors like concentration and sincerity were used as a warm up exercises paving the way for the encounter with the master (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 156). “In developing “a crowd scene”, Brian Way meant such scenes to be perceived as an occasion for Development across” the personality circle” (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 156).
-c-The Story Is Informative of the Place of the Teacher in Learning:
However, In order to judge the nature of the system of education in Drama put into practice by Brian Way through this story, a look must be cast at the position of the learner in it. Is his place central or is it subordinate to the teacher? The status of the learner in the process is a matter of choice made by the teacher. The right of self expression and of self-imposition bestowed to each child in the learning process could be a parameter for judging the progressive aspect of the system (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 7)
The theory of the exercises put in application in the story shows that although Brian Way advocated the circular rather than the linear model of education (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 149), the democratic system failed him (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 7). Pupils were automaton (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). The teacher was put in control and the pupils had to obey mimicking whatever was suggested to them (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 47). Thus, Brian Way has been perfectly in harmony with the traditionalist view where the centre of gravity is placed outside the child, that is, in the teacher, the arrow and the text book (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 3) .The metaphor that can best correspond to this situation in education is that of the child being “an empty pitcher” being filled by something external to it”, while the teacher is doing the pouring (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 3)
Contrary to Brian Way, Hurriett Finlay Johnson revolutionised the teacher-pupil relationship. It was revolutionary because at the time of Hurriett Finlay Johnson, knowledge was given to pupils for consumption (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 21). Contrary to that, Hurriett Finlay Johnson put pupils on to seek it, remould it, and to make it their own (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 21). Hurriett Finlay Johnson said that the teacher should not originate or conduct a play because the play must belong to the child (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 15)
This will give the child an occasion to express himself, to assimilate things because it is not a finished product and is not boring to him (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 15). Children according to her should express themselves in their own way rather than have the activity done for them (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 16). The revolutionary approach influenced her perception of the audience. The audience would lead participants to try to impress classmates with skills (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 18). Pupils should entertain the audience rather than be completely absorbed in their roles (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 18)-The rest of the class, the non actors should not sit passively watching a play. She overcame this impediment by eliminating the audience in its traditional sense. The audience in Hurriett Finlay Johnson`s Drama were actors, stage managers or active commentators among spectators” (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 18). The class-mates were critical spectators, interested supporters of the game (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 18) (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 18). Therefore, contrary to Hurriett Finlay Johnson`s approach in Drama, Brian Way`s theory of the exercises as the story shows, reflects the traditionalist view of education in Drama. Brian Way has failed to establish child-centred education because his Drama lays focus away from the child (Gavin Bolton, 1984. 46)
-d-Opinions Expressed in Support of Brian Way`s Theory of the Exericises
The following opinions will support Brian Way`s contribution to educational Drama through the thory of the exercises. Gavin Bolton (1998, 149) for instance noted that although Brian Way`s educational mould seems to be narrowly-oriented when compared with the theatre craftsmanship of Caldwell Cook (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150), contrary to Peter Slade, he came with a functional theory in Drama (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 149). Brian Way opened the way for purposeful activities (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 149) because the 1950s and 1960s were, according to him, times for innovation in professional theatre (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). Therefore, Brian Way came with experiential Drama (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150), breaking with the child-art approach to education so much advocated by Peter Slade (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). While Peter slade`s approach was limited to entertainment (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43), Brian Way`s was systematic and ready for use by teachers (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). Brian Way`s approach to Drama was indeed explicitly purposeful (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). Brian Way adopted improvisational techniques from Stanilavski (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150), but while Stanilavski worked with a clear theatrical end summed up in the attempt to act better, Brian Way pours the techniques into an educational shape (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). As an educationist, he contributed to the success of Performance leading it to stem from maximum concentration, maximum awareness and maximum control (Brian, 1980, 26)
Through exercises, he introduced relaxation as a method for warm ups and into teacher-repertoire (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 152), recommending that it should not last for more than a few minutes (Brian, 1980, 26). He also recommended that sight and sound or sight and touch be combined before every rehearsal and performance (Brian, 1980, 26). Consequently, warm up exercises became common not only among teachers but most importantly among acting companies using them as mental and physical preparations for rehearsal (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 152). There is also an implicit assumption that behind the theory of the exercises, Brian Way fought against the authoritarian stance perceived in Dorothy Heathcote`theory of the teacher in role (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). For some critics have put Brian Way`s theory under the light, judging it to be creative besides laying emphasis upon individualisation in learning through the encouragement of exercises and the sense of widening of activities (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). Thus, although Brian Way and Dorthy Heathcote were contemporaries, Brian came with a different approach that could be classified ahead of Dorothy Heathcote`s (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 43). For Brian Way, “Drama is concerned with the release of the real self, whereas Dorothy Heathcote is stumbling with authenticity” (Gavin Bolton, 1984, 42)
Meanwhile, Michael Fleming (1996, 90) noted that if the approach advocated by Heathcote and Bolton for practical work in classroom Drama consisted of the application of Drama conventions or techniques, assisting teachers with a selected package of discrete activities, Brian Way came with a more tangible systematic approach and a well defined methodology for application in Drama. Such approach can be summed up in diverse exercises and structures (Michael Fleming, 1996, 24). Contrary to the open-ended approach to Drama introduced by Peter Slade, Brian Way`s was concise and easy to put into practice”, rendering access to drama work easier and less mysterious (Michael Fleming, 1996, 90). This further explains why Brian Way`s book “Development through Drama” was “extremely popular at that time”. “The book offered teachers formulae over which to base their lessons” (Michael Fleming, 1996, 90). Therefore, Brian Way`s theory of the exercises provided guidance to young teachers and stimulated them to work better (David Hornbrook, 1998, 11).
Conclusion:
The bilateral aspect of Brian Way`s theory has been highlighted. On the one hand, it deviates from placing emphasis on the use of the exercises for the sake of learning skills. Instead, focus is placed on sounds put under teacher-control. The focus is also placed on personal attributes like imagination, concentration and sensitivity (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150). For although the individual child is placed in the centre of the attention (Gavin Bolton, 1998, 150), learning seems to be more cathartic than educational. The theory of the exercises will, on the other hand, seem to serve educational purposes when it is directly associated to the study of a Drama text. As it has ben demonstrated, the reliance on a Drama text would help teachers to deal with semantics, that is, with vocabulary and meaning embedded in the Drama text. Through concentration, meaning would be generated and vocabulary mastered. Concentration would equally lead pupils to deal with the syntactic component of the text, that is, with the grammatical structure of a drama text, leading pupils to master grammar. As it was illustrated earlier, the theory of the exercises entails a great deal of concentration, leading the teacher and the learner to focus on every detail contained in a Drama text in their attempt to reiterate sounds expressed in the story and to apply the listening, the looking and the touching components of the theory of the exercises. Therefore, the theory of the exercises has a bilateral aspect. It can both be associated to the fields of psychodrama and Drama-therapy as well as to Drama in education
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