Amina Foukara. ENCGAgadir, Université Ibn zohr, Agadir, Morocco. Department of Languages and Communication
for office@issr-journals.org
| Abstract: The objective behind introducing the reader to the drama method devised by Dorothy Heathcote is to show how drama can be a learning method. It is my contention to say that the drama method used by Dorothy Heathcote can be of help to drama teachers to firstly be of service to advanced level students for them to become achievers at all levels of education. This is to say that the drama method Dorothy Heathcote has devised is innovative in the sense that it can be allied to an array of subjects inserted into the curriculum. Thus, the most important method ranking high in Dorothy heathcote’s drama method is known under Mantle of the Expert. Mantle of the Expert is the far-fetched method Dorothy Heathcote has devised for those needing to learn through action and to become experts at the subjects inscribed into the curriculum. Secondly, the drama method devised by Dorothy Heathcote can help teachers to deal with targets prescribed for learners needing to improve their English learning skill. Thus, the arrangement and the organization of drama activities before and during the production and the performance phases of scripts can ultimately help learners to achieve many goals relevant at least to productive skills, that is, to writing and speaking and to the receptive skills, that is, reading and listening. Keywords: The curriculum; Dramatisation; Register; Role; Mantle of the Expert |
I Introduction
It is my pleasure to inaugurate this theoretical work by the following question What novelty has Dorothy Heathcote [1] introduced into the world of education? Innovation at the level of the curriculum devised by Dorothy Heathcote was one of the pertinent subjects studied at the time I was a student at University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Camarthen, Wales, UK. Thus, it seems to me now that the most striking novelty devised by Dorothy Heathcote relates to arming students with the tools to face challenge through play as well as providing teachers with a method to apply during dramatisation. Also, Dorothy Heathcote [1] has set a new pattern for teachers relating to the use of a special “register” where not only the socio-economic scale is taken into account but also different teaching techniques are used during dramatisation. Novelty launched in the field of education by Dorothy Heathcote[1] equally involves teacher out of role, teacher in role, teacher in a middle ranked position as well as teacher in the shadowy role. Dorothy Heathcote has most importantly challenged traditional concepts relating to teacher and pupil relationship within the context of learning.
Key-Words :
| The curriculum | Dramatisation | Register | playing a Role | |
| The term curriculum is used to substitute for the program of study is an academic institution. It is anchored on five questions: what ought to be taught to learners, why ought such a content be chosen for them, who is supposed to teach it and how such a content needs to be taught (pedagogy). | The word drama is an integral part of dramatisation. Very often, drama is associated to theatre. It is a piece of prose writing that has a particular form, notably, it is made up of acts and scenes. Drama is text, while theatre is performance, that is staging. Therefore dramatisation is the art of producing drama, of rehearsing and performing it. Therefore, dramatisation is made up of the production phase, of rehearsing, that is, of doing a series of exercises conducted before the performance phase. | Register refers to language usage. It is associated to sociolinguistics because the language used by a speaker can reflect ‘his’ or ‘her’ social background or status. Register is punctuated in Dorothy Heathcote’s drama method through voice in reading and writing. |
for information about drama written by amina foukara relevant to the innovation of the drama studio at ENCGAgadir, Université Ibn Zohr, Morocco innovation, consul the following link:
3 The Drama Method Devised by Dorothy Heathcote:
3.1 Dorothy Heathcote Giving the Chance to Students to Experience Change
Heathcote aims to teach her students how to face the consequences of mismanagement through the fictional world. Dorothy Heathcote [1] understands that education is a process of change (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x) [2], so, imagined contexts are used with the objective of offering pupils the possibility to take responsibility for their actions for the sake of bringing about change (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x). Heathcote`s aim is to explore experience through episodes that enrich the fictional context (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 2) [3]. She has thus established a tradition where the goal of the teacher should involve the exploration of special walks of life and to see beyond the surface of meaning (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 2)
Dorothy Heathcote gets usually involved in the dramatic action to help students develop the sense of spectatorship (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x) which is necessary for the experience to transcend superficial dramatic playing (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x) [2]. Spectatorship refers to the potential of the teacher to help students to sit and to read the moment (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x) [2]. The teacher will thus induce students to see the world, the past and the future in a new light (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, xi)
3.2 Dorothy Heathcote Setting a Model for Teachers to Help Students Overcome Obstacles
Dorothy Heathcote has set a model for teachers to use dramatisation for the purpose of teaching pupils how to learn and how to live with and to accept disturbing experiences (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 4) [3]. When a significant event is coming up, like facing the challenge of an interview, it is first rehearsed in the mind (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 4) [3]. Any daunting event might first be projected through drama where the teacher gets pupils put themselves into the event, talk aloud about it and explore the feel of the experience it occasions for the sake of decreasing anxiety and increasing control above it (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 4)
The role of the teacher encroaches upon enabling pupils to accept and to face up to truth (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 4) [3]. Therefore, Dorothy Heathcote sets a model for teachers to build students` commitment to the dramatic world challenging them within it (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x) [2] and helping them to adapt to the situation causing stigmatisation.
3.3 Dorothy Heathcote Getting Ready for Playing the Role of the Teacher out of Role (Providing Guidance to Teachers).
Dorothy Heathcote`s [1]objective involves sensitivity to the nuances of language, the complex aspect of human interaction and the dedication of the artist to meet the demands of his craft (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 2) [3] . Dorothy Heathcote`s objective is to guide teachers, showing them how to find material and use her techniques (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 3) [3]. Thus, Dorothy Heathcote [1] has played a considerable role showing teachers how to use Drama to achieve goals (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 4) [3]. Cecily O’Neil[2], for instance, used Dorothy Heathcote`s book “Drama As a Learning Medium” as a guide providing her with insight into what she could achieve through Drama (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, xii) [2]. Dorothy Heathcote has by and large trained Drama specialists (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 4), teaching them how to use strategies like teacher in role (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, ix) [2].
If the teacher has never used Drama before, he should remember that there is no clear beginning point but just edging in (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 26) [3]. This implies that the teacher should start by examining surrounding conditions first. There are six elements involved in this: Noise, distance, decision-taking, the size of the group, teaching registers and the status of the teacher (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 26) [3]
3.3.1 Managing Noise:
Dorothy Heathcote knows that there is no dramatic action without noise, but noise must fit the purpose (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27) [3]. So, as a teacher, she permits noise only if it can be justified dramatically (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27) [3]. She believes that a noisy class may result into getting the teacher lose status (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27). So, as a teacher out of role, Dorothy Heathcote manages drama in such a way that there is no unnecessary noise accompanying dramatisation (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27). Dorothy Heathcote is conscious about the fact that noise causes tension if it goes uncontrolled (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27)
3.3.2 Decision-taking :
As a teacher, Dorothy Heathcote [1]thinks about the portion she will have to let to students in terms of decision-taking (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 26) [3]. This portion is limited to the plot and to the setting (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27) [3]. Dorothy Heathcote works with authority and intuition (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 3) [3]. She uses authority when she is out of role because she means students to learn to take decisions and to understand rewards and demands (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27). Likewise, teachers will have to adopt this pattern and to think about the portion of the decision they should let students take (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 26) [3].
3.3.3 Distance:
Dorothy Heathcote prefers to reduce the distance separating her from pupils and to be involved during play (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28) [3] . She likes to get involved, showing pupils how to proceed (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28) [3]. She likes getting into their minds, sitting closer to them and looking right at them. She likes even touching them if the drama calls for it (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28) [3]. She does much touching during role (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28) [3]. The advantage of this intimacy is that children feed her and she can perceive what they think and feel (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28) [3]. She can assess their social health by making sure they can look into her eyes and share space with her (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28). She does not use the bulk of authority that a distant stance brings (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28) [3]. There is no escape from this involvement (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28). To ease oneself into Drama and to play the role of a governor maintaining distance (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28) [3] is counterpart to her strategy.
Traditional teachers opt for distance. They encourage individual differences, reject team-work during rehearsals and during the production and the performance phases. The establishment of distance is a matter of their choice (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27) [3]. They ease themselves into Drama, setting a distance between students and themselves, taking comfort in such a traditional stance and tell students what to do, assigning tasks for them (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27) [3]. Students sit in individual desks responding to requests (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 27) [3].
3.3.4 The Size of the group:
Dorothy Heathcote[1] feels comfortable working with a larger group . No matter how large a group could be, every member belonging to it would be working at once (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 28) [3]. Such a strategy allows her to get basic signals from members at once, to respond to special needs and to help students understand hidden meaning conveyed through action (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 29) [3].
3.3.5 Teaching Registers or Stances:
Register refers to tone and language depending on the socio economic scale. Dorothy Heathcote[1] weighs the extent to which a special register can be appropriate for a particular dramatic situation ( see Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 30) [3]. She uses this strategy whether he is in or out of role ( see Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 30). Dorothy Heathcote [1] use of register involves especially the dialect, setting a pattern for students to use and to expand theirs (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 30) [3].She also uses social variation in her use of language (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 30) as she moves up and down the socio-economic scale in her endeavour to be the spokesman of the humble and of the powerful ( see Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 30) [3].
Register refers also to the use of a special strategy during instruction. This is termed as the teaching register (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 30). Dorothy Heathcote[1] invites teachers to use all the hereafter described registers at once during dramatisation. The first teaching register is called “the one who knows register or stance” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 30) [3]. It is often used by Dorothy Heathcote when pupils are spoiling drama and when she finds it incumbent on her to redress the situation: “Now, listen! you should know this”. “You are laughing at it and it cannot go on like this” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 30) [3]. The second teaching register is called “would you like to know register” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31). Here, Dorothy Heathcote invites the class to request information (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3]. However, Dorothy Heathcote seldom teaches facts unless the students solicit them (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3]. Only then would she search for information about history along with pupils (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3]. The third register is called the “I have –no –idea register” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31).Dorothy Heathcote opts for this register because it evokes responses from students (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31). So, she makes pupils guess what lurks in her mind and she frees them to discuss the ideas along with her (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3]. Through the use of this register she gives pupils the chance to wonder with her (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3]. The third teaching register is known under “the it`is no use asking me register” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3] and it is a variation of “I have no idea register” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31). Here, Dorothy Heathcote[1] might withdraw from involvement out of her own volition when she realizes that drama can function well without her involvement into it (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3]. Thus, she turns the responsibility back on to the class (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31). The fourth register is called “the register suggesting implications” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 32) [3]. Here Dorothy Heathcote[1] reflects with the class musing, facing pupils and suggesting alternatives in an open-ended way (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31). She displays restlessness seeking to give pupils further guidance (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3].. Dorothy Heathcote[1] might leave the class, might come back to it and stand apart from pupils reflecting on the feeling she meant to project: “fatigue, helplessness”, she sighed, “waved a signal to them in the distance and called warily as if from a distance: “I have been as far as mountaintop and I can find nothing. We are in the same position as yesterday. I could see your boat. There is neither shelter nor habitation here (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130) [3]. The fifth register is known under the “I shall supply what you need register” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 32) [3].. This is where the teacher puts herself at the service of pupils as she tries to ensure that their ideas have been implemented and information is fully supplied them while they are in role (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3].. The sixth register is labelled “the devil advocate register” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31) [3].. Dorothy Heathcote uses this technique for the sake of signalling to the class that she is not speaking for herself but that she is rather being in role. To signal the fact that she is not speaking for herself, she relies on the use of “tone”. This technique could be difficult to apply with children because it gives the impression you are talking for yourself (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 32) [3].. To get children be familiar with it, Dorothy Heathcote had to partake in an outdoor play where five-years children played the role of a group knocking at doors seeking the family of a lost baby. Meanwhile, Dorothy Heathcote[1] used different tones pretending to be different “mothers”, informing the children about the fact that the baby was not hers (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 32) [3]. The sixth register is known under “the going along register” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 34) [3]. Here, the teacher agrees about any decision made by the group. This is what Dorothy calls “letting the Class be past”. She uses this register to assess the dramatic potential of a decision made by Class (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 31)
3.4 Teacher out of Role, Introducing Pupils to the Big Lie and Building Belief
Dorothy Heathcote [1] appreciates the theory forwarded by Jerome Bruner (1961) as he said: “there are three major ways human beings represent and deal with reality: the iconic method, that is, learning through images, the symbolic method, that is, learning through language and the enactive method, that is, learning through action (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 68) [3].. These are the three methods used by the teacher out of role for visualisation purposes (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 68) [3].. Being out of role, Dorothy Heathcote uses paper, paint and the blackboard to visualize the drama (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 68) [3]..
Dorothy Heathcote [1] relies on pantomine too to internalize the big lie. According to her, the big lie is useful for playing the role, miming characters (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 64). To introduce pupils to the world of fictional drama, she resorts to miming, using pantomime (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 67) [3]. She thus introduces teachers to an important strategy relating to how to build belief in Drama (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 63) [3]. One of her objectives is to give a chance to shy pupils to get involved in play without using language (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 67).
3.5 Teacher in Role, Taking a Middle-rank position
Dorothy Heathcote[1] might not be the final power but she might rather choose to take a middle rank position. She might, for instance, play the role of a foreman in a factory, or that of a police-officer obeying rules, or of a submarine (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 128) [3]. There are reasons why she might want to play the latter role. She might mean to be a subordinate to pupils playing the role of seniors signalling the fact that she knows less than they do: “that`s all I know”, or “ I have done what I was told”, giving them the chance to decide on her behalf (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 128) [3]. She might also want to be in a middle rank position in role to communicate with higher and lower ranked acting pupils (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 128) [3] and to be possible for her to get out of role whenever she wants to (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 128) [3]. When she is out of role, she takes no more than a decision that indicates a direction for the drama (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 128), relegating full responsibility to pupils during play (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 129) [3].
3.6 Guidelines for Teacher in Role (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130).
The following are a series of guidelines governing the teacher in Role technique. First, the teacher is supposed to stay in role only as long as she/he is needed (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130) [3]. Second, to keep the performers motivated, the teacher in role is not expected to use the rule of the thumb for long. The reason is that the rule of the thumb does not work when it lasts longer than what is necessary to keep the group motivated (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130) [3].
For this reason, Dorothy Heathcote[1] often gets out of role and relegates her role over to another motivated member of the group (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130).
Third, the teacher in role is expected to use non-verbal language in addressing the performers. She employs brief but valuable words in supplying information to a group of performers at once, especially when they are facing a predicament (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130). Dorothy Heathcote for instance, gets into role to monitor a group facing trouble with the big lie (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131). She helps making a contribution that sustains belief in fiction (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131) [3]. Fourth, the teacher in role is expected to use authority in dealing with performers for the sake of keeping them on duty at once at least at the beginning of the drama (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130). Meanwhile, the group has to be kept in integrated; otherwise, the teacher in role gets disempowered (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130) [3]. Fifth, a teacher in role is expected to generate information through the group. Getting the group explain work is one of the methods a teacher in role can use to achieve this objective (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131). Dorothy Heathcote[1] usually plays the role of one of the following: the role of a non-aggressive visitor feeling curious about how the group carries out tasks (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131) [3], that of a reporter needing to write a story and basing it on facts (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131), that of a person in authority seeking to find out about what the group is involved in (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131) [3], that of a messenger needing to make a report to the king or to television or radio-interviewers (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131) [3], that of a group-member being unwilling to agree with a choice made by the group, so, she will try to induce the members to persuade her to agree with whatever is at stake (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131) [3].
The advantage of having a teacher take in role is that the intense hierarchy binding teacher-pupil relationship gets reduced (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131) [3].
When the teacher is in role, that is, when he/she is a participant in the story, pupils do not feel obliged to show respect or defence (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 131). The teacher will consequently allow for real and spontaneous exchange of ideas and thoughts between teacher and pupils to take place (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132). When a teacher is in role, he/she can be verbally and non-verbally harsher than he/she usually is when he/she is out of role, and in so being, he/she can heightens the drama and feed the class (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3].
3.7 Teacher In and out of Role
Dorothy Heathcote moves in and out of role (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 127) [3].When she is out of role, she reflects and she probes into meaning side by side with the pupils under her responsibility (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 17) [3]Then, she makes a shift getting into role and her language and action get empowered (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 18) [3]. She will shout in a booming roar of voice ordering the pupils to pull and to get the sail up (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 19). She will go aggressively into role to develop and to heighten emotion (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 127) and the role she takes gives her manoeuvrability (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 127) [3]and it stimulates the response of pupils (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 127. She for instance takes on a role in a drama about a strike. Hands on hips, she stands looking at the class shouting: “not another bloody lay down! Where is the foreman?” She stood there till they did something” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 130) [3].
The pupils will look at each other in confusion wondering “where has the tyrant come from?” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 19) [3]. The group gets frightened (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 127). Dorothy Heathcote might play the role of a dynamic leader (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 127) to build pupils` commitment to the dramatic world and to challenge them within it (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, ix) [2]. Then, she might again get out of role to maintain distance, to be reflective and to be objective. Then, she will act like a teacher with a smile (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 127) [3].
3.8 The Shadowy Role (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132).
Two instances where the teacher is in role and when she/he is out of role were discussed (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132).The shadowy role is a third instance where the teacher is in role and is also half way providing guidance to the pupils.
Dorothy Heathcote illustrates a case where she plays shadowy role dealing with the war of independence, she gives guidance to pupils (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3]. Here, she assumes the attitude of one of the villagers and yet, she is half in role as teacher monitoring pupils. She takes on her shadowy role, saying “as a governor, I sent papers to England” . Then, as a teacher, she asks: “what do you do? Write your job on the blackboard beside your house”. She goes on as a teacher to fill in the diagram of the village on the board. Then, still as half a teacher and without changing her tone or her gestures she asks: “If I want to talk to all of you, where would I go?”. Then, she will go once again into the governor role saying with authority and power: “today, I shall wait for you at the well because I have some news for all the colony (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3]. The objective behind the use of the shadowy role is to project an attitude (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132). Meanwhile, she keeps feeling free to get into role at any point she wants (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132). She is free to get out of role without signalling it and she acts as a teacher again whenever the drama demands it (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3]. She can go for the shadowy role showing this through a different postures and expressions (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3].
However, there are special occasions where Dorothy Heathcote[1] uses the shadowy role. First, she uses it whenever she feels that drama is limping and that the class is not quite ready to do without teacher-pupil relationship (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3]. Second, she uses it whenever she means to leave the option of direction to pupils as open as possible (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3]. Dorothy Heathcote [1]avoids getting into a strong role that determines direction, especially if she senses that the class is strong enough to respond to leadership (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3]. The elements imbued in a shadowy role are the following: ambiguous language, and gestures whose interpretation is left to the discretion of children when the teacher is directing the drama (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 132) [3].
3.9 Teacher and Learner Relationship
Neil Kitson and I an Spiby (1997, 10) [4]maintain that “change has settled on the philosophy of education since 1945 and that drama, dating back to the sixteenth century, is always the subject of change and that it is considered a new subject on the curriculum”. They explain (1997, 14) that “behind a sense of camaraderie and enjoyable experiences, there is real involvement in a special time occurring outside the boundaries of day to day life and giving way to a great deal of learning especially during rehearsal”.
Today, educators perceive and acknowledge flaws in teaching methodologies (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, iv); (Cecily O Neil). It is a matter of lack of challenge, a sense of dependence on the teacher fostered by teachers during instruction (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, iv/Cecily O Neil). Consequently, many metaphors have been negatively associated with passive learners (Ellis, 1986, ix) [5] for being passive recipients of knowledge.
Dorothy Heathcote [1]believes that learning does not require information be heaped upon learners but to induce them to use what they already know in a special way (Neil Kitson and I an Spiby, 1997, 14) [11]. She recommends that drama be a medium for raising awareness among pupils, for enabling them to study reality and to see below the surface of action to detect meaning (Neil Kitson and I an Spiby, 1997, 14) [11]. Pupils should virtually get burnished through play (Neil Kitson and I an Spiby, 1997, 14) [11]. Drama is the most demanding subject on the school time-curriculum, calling for imagination and the powers of organisation far in excess of those required in any other subject (Brian Peachment 1976, 188) [12].
Critics commonly acknowledge the fact that Dorothy Heathcote usually puts herself in a situation that indicates she knows less than the learner (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 68) [3]. She is believed to “drop a metaphorical mantle of expertise over the students` shoulders” (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 68,) [3], which signals the fact that it is incumbent on them to play the role of researchers seeking knowledge rather than just consuming it. Absence of teacher talk is one of the characteristics of In the Mantle of the expert (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 21) [1]. Dorothy Heathcote[1] never tells a student what to feel or what to think and she never pushes for more than what a student can discover by himself (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 3) [3].
It is believed that it is their ideas not hers which would make the drama going (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 96) [3].
Gradually, she would be reported to let her expertise come out (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 96) [3].. She would challenge misinformation if it stands at cross-purposes with the beliefs of the classmates, if it blurs the dramatic concept or if it contradicts the objective of presenting history for instance, accurately (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 96). Critiques disclose her objective: to let the pupils discover hidden meaning and reality by themselves (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 96) [3]
The ideas and the methodologies initiated by Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton within the field of education became more widely known in the TIE circles throughout the 1980s (Tony Jackson, 1993, 27) [8]. Their approach stressed the pedagogic value of Drama and the use of such strategies as teacher in role, a technique close to the notion of the actor-teacher (Tony Jackson, 1993, 27) [8].. Emphasis was laid on a carefully structured opportunity set for reflection by the children during classroom drama work (Tony Jackson, 1993, 27) [8]. Dorothy Heathcote, Gavin Bolton and Cecely O`Neill attracted attention to the potential for learning through Drama (Sharon Grady, 2000, 15) [10]. Instead of basing problem-solving upon Hamlet, students created a tense situation of their choice, playing it out (Sharon Grady, 2000, 15) [10]. Students engaged in the examination of the roles of identity and context while solving the chosen problems (Sharon Grady, 2000, 15) [10]. Meanwhile, they strengthened their skills: character, scenario, social skills like debating and persuasion (Sharon Grady, 2000, 15) [10]
The knowledge is experienced by the students on the basis of their being “human beings” (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1]. The human being must be responsible, providing a service rather than be served (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1]. Human beings, that is, participants, in the mantle of the expert are committed to an enterprise (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1].. They are framed by this commitment which affects their relatedness to knowledge (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1]. The participants are responsible in the sense that they are not receivers of knowledge and that they are not told what to do (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1].. They engage with learning as people with responsibility (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1].The responsibility they undertake is not the knowledge itself but a project they are supposed to make (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1]., bestowing recognition to the responsibility they are taking and to the knowledge they are acquiring (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1]. Knowledge becomes information (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1].. Knowledge becomes also guidelines, records, regulations (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1]. Meanwhile, the teacher will have to investigate into the relationship between the learner and the information to be investigated into (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 32) [1].
3.10 The Active Learner/Expert
Cognitive research describes the learner as an active participant ( Faerch and Kasper, 1983, 15) [9]. Successful learning depends to a larger extent upon the propensity of learners to bring about relevant information and to bear on solving problems (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, iv); (Cecily O Neil). Learning requires that pupils play the role of experts (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 4). The experts could be social workers, the police or nurses, whose task is to solve a problem in role (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 4). They must be professionals in a place like a business where action occurs (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 17). They should learn how to gradually take control of the fictional context (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, iv/Cecily O Neil) [1]. They must be conscious about what they are learning, since they are supposed to continuously reassess and record new acquisitions (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 18) [1]. They must especially be burdened with responsibility, putting theoretical learning into practice (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 18) [1]. Modern critics assign learners many roles (Ellis, 2001, 1) [5]. Action can be slowed down, reflection and awareness can be heightened, and the learner’s awareness and commitment to the dramatic world can be built for challenge (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, ix) [2]. Learners are, in short, expected to work within the context of the mantle of the expert strategy (Philip Taylor and Christine D Warner, 2006,102) [13]. Meanwhile, the teacher will start with the assessment of the degree of the expertise the task would be requiring and the detection of the social health of the class (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 24) [1]. The tasks are instigated by the teacher and pupils come together in small groups to make decisions about them (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 24) [1]. The experts are consequently thought of as independent mediators (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 18) [1], endowed with the potential to settle all arbitration problems like arguments and to establish the rules of discipline (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 29) [1]
3.11 The Teacher in Role
Perhaps, external factors have contributed to reinforcing the role of teachers in forming knowledgeable learners. Such factors find expression in inflation being high by 1980, and in financial pressures leading companies to look for increased cost effectiveness, reducing the number of their personnel (Tony Jackson, 1993, 26) [8]. The situation was thought to be better redressed through teachers (Tony Jackson, 1993, 26) [8]., especially in terms of forming knowledgeable and self-reliant learners. Teachers were thought of as members of the learning community (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, viii) [1].. They were most and foremost expected to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 3) [1]and to operate from within rather than from without the dramatic role (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 4) [1]. Thanks to the knowledge, the skills and the courage of the teacher, the learning drama experience can be encouraged and driven forwards (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, viii) [1], provided teachers be knowledgeable about pupils’ way of learning (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, viii) [1]. Philip Taylor ( 2006, 28) [10] concluded that the 1960s and the 1970s stressed the importance of pedagogy and the criteria of successful teaching (Brian Way, 1967) [14]. Development through Drama gained recognition (Brian Way, 1967) [14]., hence, it was thought of as a Learning Medium.
Teachers and learners are bound through an agreement in a functional role (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 23) [1]. The responsibility binding them is given time to grow and to prosper (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 24) [1]. The tasks are instigated by the teacher and pupils come together in small groups to make decisions about them (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 24) [1]. The past and the future enveloping the experts need to be established too (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 29) [1], therefore, the teacher decides the experts should be mediators due to the nature of the knowledge they have, being still off target (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 29) [1]. When the word “now” as in “we have got letters now” is used, the future would be close at hand (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 29) [1]. Teachers and pupils get into role to challenge the limits which were exclusively traced for traditional teachers ( Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 21) [1].
While Dorothy Heathcote is doing Drama with a group of children, the rest of the class are watching her (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 2) [3]. Then, she dismisses the children to spend the rest of the session answering questions and explaining what she did and why she did it (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 4) [3]. The process involves going through a series of stages. First, a group of pupils running a business and facing the obstacle of getting other businesses would try to solve problems relating to wages as a stated example (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 22) [1]. Second, they would indulge into planning processes and into considering the consequences of mismanagement (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 22) [1]. Third, they would make important decisions like giving a name to the firm (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 22) [1]. Fourth, they would make other interesting decisions like developing letterhead and a style for advertising (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 22) [1]. The listing of the above ideas can be listed either by pupils or by the teacher using chalk and the blackboard (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 23). The fifth stage involves testing the advertisement on teachers, children, parents, the head teacher and canteen staff (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 23) [1].This will require organisation (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 23) [1]. The stages of developing advertisements by the group-members will involve similar organisation (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 23). First, the image of the product should be taken into consideration (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 23) [1].. Second, designing must take into account the targeted client using the sample (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 23) [1]. Third, the sample will be launched for advertisement (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 23). Fourth, the pupils roles must be planned after responding to the design ( Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton, 1994, 32) [1]
It was most importantly believed that there should be no isolation of themes within the curriculum (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 16) [1]. The latter was perceived in broader terms involving a broad application of knowledge and skills (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 16). Teachers had to ensure that all curriculum areas were accessible (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 17) [1] like calculation, estimation, writing and reading history, science, geography and archaeology (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 18) [1]. Five or six sessions will deal with many selected aspects of the curriculum like science, math, language and art (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 16) [1]. The subject of learning had to emerge from curricular tasks (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 18) [1].
However, should a teacher mean to teach a subject beyond the limitations of the curriculum, Drothy Heathcote[1] recommends a special approach should be applied. The subject of bullying, for instance, will rise. Tackling it, requires mastering special skills and special knowledge over several sessions (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 16). In other words, pupils should not be tied up to bullying as a school subject (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 16). Rather, bullying must be perceived as a classroom related situation (Dorothy Heathcote and Bolton, 1994, 16) [1].
12 Conclusion
Recent developments have been introduced by Dorothy Heathcote[1] relating to the world of education. Such developments have so far been explored, relating to learners playing the role of “experts” and to teachers playing the part of providers and sharers of knowledge. The nature of “role” played by teachers is worth highlighting. Whether the teacher is in role, out of role or is adopting a shadowy role, imagined contexts are used with the objective of offering students the possibility to take responsibility for their actions and to bring about change (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x) [2] . The potential of Dorothy Heathcote to helps pupils to see beyond the surface of the situation to build students` commitment to the dramatic world and to challenge them within it has so far been examined (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, ix) [2]. Dorothy Heathcote`s objective is not limited to the end of the story but she uses the story to get the pupils experience change (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x) [2] . Dorothy Heathcote understands that education is a process of change (Cecily O`Neil, 1999, x) [2]. Dorothy Heathcote`s [1]aim is to explore a single experience through episodes that enrich the fictional context (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 2) [3]. The goal is to learn through Drama relating to a historical event, to explore other walks of life, or conflicts between different cultural groups and to see below the surface of meaning (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 2) [3].Dorothy Heathcote`s objective involves sensitivity to the nuances of language, the complex aspect of human interaction and the dedication of the artist to meet the demands of his craft (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 2). Dorothy Heathcote`s objective is to show teachers how to find material and use her techniques (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 3) [3].
However, deep below the surface of learning as suggested by Dorothy Heathcote, a teaching manipulative strategy finding an echo in traditional teaching is noted. It finds form in the strategy she applies to solicit the involvement of pupils in the process of learning, assigning them no freedom to partake in taking decisions out of their own volition. Rather, she leads pupils through asking them honed Questions (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 55) [3] Questions are her main instruments for working with students (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 55) [3]. Through honed questions, she accelerates the speed of working with class, getting the most recalcitrant members contribute to discussions or partake in group decisions (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 55) [3]. A teaching manipulative strategy is conveyed through at least seven types of questions. It is conveyed first through questions seeking information (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 56) [3]. Such questions are used to assess pupils through being clear and keeping the words broad (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 57) [3]. Second, the manipulative strategy is conveyed through Questions that supply information (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 56) [3]. Rather than giving the class factual knowledge, Dorthy Heathcote would rather focus on the immediate problem or task they face and she asks questions to check understanding (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999,59) [3]. She words her questions in such a way that they are embedded with specific information (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 59) [3], to the extent that the pupils would know answers without being told (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 59) [3]. Through pantomime, she may even provide further help (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 59). Third, manipulative teaching is reinforced through branching questions (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 56) [3]. It relates to group-decisions (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 60) [3] made by socially immature groups that have problems answering open-ended questions (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 60) [3]. The following is an example illustrating how a question can be branched: “Would you like to plan a bit or is it that you can trust me to start the drama”(Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 60) [3]. Manipulation is fourthly stressed through what is termed “controlling Questions” because they are designed for controlling the whole class (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 56) [3]. No matter how Dorothy Heathcote might try to avoid giving the impression that she is avoiding control, she would wonder or muse to give the impression she is allotting pupils enough freedom to learn (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 61) [3]. A manipulative teaching strategy is fifthly used by Dorothy Heathcote when she asks supportive questions to pupils being entangled in a problem (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 61) [3]. Sixth, manipulation is established through questions establishing belief (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 56). Seventh, it is strengthened through questions deepening insight (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 56). Dorothy Heathcote might also challenge teachers to ask questions in a musing tone (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 56). She might also use non-verbal signals and symbols to solicit ideas from the group too to get the class involved, committed and engaged and reflective about a drama which explores significant human experience (Betty Jane Wagner, 1999, 55) [3]. However, it is a fact to be deplored that Dorothy Heathcote is still far from establishing a wholesome theory where learners could get rid of the metaphors describing them negatively.
References
[1]Heathcote, D., and Bolton, B., Drama for Learning, Dorothy Heathcote`s Mantle of the Expert, Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1994
[2] O`Neil, Cecily, Drama As a Learning Method, In: B.J. Wagner, Dorothy Heathcote, Portlan: Calendar Islands Publishers, pp. 10-20, 1999.
[3] Wagner, B.J, Dorothy Heathcote. Drama As a Learning:Portlan, Calendar Islands Publishers, 1999.
[4] Kitson, N and Spiby, I.A., Curriculum in Primary Practice. Drama 7-11. Developing Primary Teaching Skills, New York: Routledge, pp. 1-11 , 1997.
[5] Ellis, R, The Metaphorical Constructions of Second Language Learners, in: M.Breen, Learner Contributions to Language Learning, Harlow: Longman, pp. 2001, L London: e-book-published, pp.1-240, 2001.
[6]: Ellis, R. Understanding Second Language Acquisition: Oxford, Oxford University, pp. 1-170, 1986
[7] Peachment, B, Educational Drama: A Practical Guide for Students and Teachers, Estover, Plymouth: Macdonalds and Evans, pp.1-190, 1976.
[8]Jackson, T, Learning through Theatre, London and New York: Routledge, pp.1-321, 1993.
[9] Faerch, C and Kasper, G, Strategies in inter-Language Communication: London, Longman, pp. 1-169 , 1983.
[10] Grading, S, Drama and Diversity. A Pluralistic Perspective for Educational Drama, New York: ERIC , pp.1-208, 2000.
[11] Kitson, Neil and Spiby, I an .Curriculum in Primary Practice. Drama 7-11. Developing Primary Teaching Skills.New York: Routledge, pp. 1-150 , 1997.
[12]:Peachment, Brian. Educational Drama: A Practical Guide for Students and Teachers. Estover, Plymouth: Macdonalds and Evans, pp. 1-160, 1976.
[13] Taylor, P and Christine, D. W., Structure and Spontaneity. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books, pp. 1-90 , 2006.
[14] Way,B, Development through Drama. Education Today: London, Longman Group, pp. 1-80, 1980.
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